Fonte originale: Biblical Archaeology Review
Autore: Aaron A. Burke, Professor of the Archaeology of Ancient Israel and the Levant at the University of California, Los Angeles.
Adapted and edited by Boundless – Knowledge Without Borders Editorial Team
THE SHARDANU IN EGYPT AND CYPRUS
While historical texts provide valuable information about the Shardanu, archaeology offers some of the strongest evidence for their presence far beyond the shores of Sardinia. Weapons, pottery, and trade goods discovered across the eastern Mediterranean reveal a pattern of mobility that is consistent with the movement of professional warriors and military communities during the Late Bronze Age.
Among the most significant discoveries are the distinctive swords associated with the Shardanu. Egyptian reliefs consistently portray these warriors carrying long blades that differ considerably from the shorter daggers typically used in Egypt and much of the Levant. Designed for both thrusting and slashing combat, these weapons belonged to a military tradition more common in the central and western Mediterranean.
Archaeologists have identified comparable swords at sites throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Examples have been excavated at Enkomi in Cyprus, one of the most important commercial centers of the Late Bronze Age. Similar weapons have also been discovered at Alalakh and Ugarit in the northern Levant, as well as at Gezer and Tell es-Sa’idiyeh farther south.
The distribution of these swords does not by itself prove the presence of Sardinian warriors. Weapons can travel through trade as easily as people. Yet when these finds are considered alongside the historical references to the Shardanu and the broader archaeological evidence, they strongly suggest that Sardinian fighters were active in many of the major cities of the eastern Mediterranean.
Ceramic evidence points in the same direction. At Hala Sultan Tekke, an important urban center in eastern Cyprus, archaeologists recovered several black-burnished Sardinian bowls from offering pits dating to the thirteenth century BCE. These vessels belong to a ceramic tradition known as Nuragic Gray Ware, named after the Nuragic culture of Sardinia.
What makes these discoveries particularly significant is the nature of the pottery itself. The bowls are simple, undecorated, and utilitarian. They are not luxury imports, prestige goods, or diplomatic gifts. Instead, they appear to be everyday household objects.
Because of their ordinary character, many scholars believe they were carried and used by Sardinians living abroad rather than imported as valuable commodities. If so, they provide tangible evidence for the physical presence of people from Sardinia in Cyprus during the Late Bronze Age.
Additional discoveries reinforce this interpretation. Nuragic pottery, including several large storage jars, has been found at the nearby fortified settlement of Pyla-Kokkinokremos, a site dating to the twelfth century BCE. Some researchers have suggested that this isolated community may have included groups of foreign warriors, among them Sardinian mercenaries.
THE SHARDANA IN UGARIT AND ISRAEL
Evidence from the Levant is equally intriguing. Certain handmade burnished wares discovered at sites such as Ugarit and Tell Kazel closely resemble Nuragic ceramics from Sardinia. Although similarities in pottery cannot always be interpreted as proof of migration, they may indicate the presence of Sardinian individuals or communities who introduced elements of their material culture into local societies.
Trade networks provide another important line of evidence. Far from being isolated, Sardinia participated actively in the long-distance commercial exchanges that connected the Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age.
One striking example comes from a Bronze Age shipwreck discovered off the northern coast of present-day Israel near HaHotrim. Among the cargo were copper ingots originating from Sardinia. At the same time, archaeologists have uncovered large numbers of Cypriot copper ingots at sites throughout Sardinia.
These discoveries reveal the existence of enduring commercial relationships that linked the island with the eastern Mediterranean. Copper from Cyprus appears to have moved westward to Sardinia, where it was likely used in the manufacture of weapons and other metal goods. Sardinian copper, meanwhile, traveled eastward toward Cyprus and the Levant.
The movement of metals may also help explain the movement of people. The same maritime routes that carried copper, ceramics, and other commodities almost certainly facilitated the travel of soldiers, merchants, craftsmen, and adventurers. In this interconnected world, mercenaries themselves may have become part of the wider system of exchange.
When textual sources, artistic representations, and archaeological discoveries are considered together, the Shardanu emerge as one of the clearest examples of foreign mercenaries operating in the eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age. Indeed, among the groups traditionally identified as Sea Peoples, they may be the only population whose origins and movements can be traced with a reasonable degree of confidence through both historical and archaeological evidence.
The significance of the Shardanu extends beyond their own history. Their experience offers an important model for understanding another famous group associated with the Sea Peoples: the Philistines.
THE PHILISTINES
The Philistines first appeared along the southern coast of the Levant during the early twelfth century BCE, shortly after their defeat by Ramesses III. Modern archaeological research increasingly suggests that their arrival was not the result of a single massive invasion or a coordinated migration. Instead, it appears to have been a complex and gradual process.
The five major Philistine cities—Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza—experienced different patterns of transition during this period. Some suffered extensive destruction, others only partial disruption, while some appear to have been abandoned by Egyptian authorities before being reoccupied.
Evidence indicates that the Philistines initially represented only a minority within these settlements. Archaeologists note that pottery displaying distinctively Philistine or Aegean characteristics accounts for only a portion of the material culture recovered from these sites. Most of the pottery continued established Canaanite traditions, suggesting that local populations and newcomers lived side by side rather than one group completely replacing the other.
At the same time, the Philistines introduced new architectural styles, household features, industrial practices, and weaving traditions. Over time these elements contributed to the emergence of a distinctive Philistine culture along the southern Levantine coast.
The history of the Shardanu suggests that the Philistines may represent the final stage of a broader Late Bronze Age phenomenon. Throughout this period, Mediterranean populations became increasingly involved in the military and political struggles of the eastern empires. Groups that originally arrived as warriors, mercenaries, or displaced peoples gradually established permanent communities and developed new identities in their adopted lands.
THE BIBLICAL HISTORICAL NARRATIVE
Like the Shardanu before them, the Philistines appear to have entered Egyptian service following military defeat. During the final decades of Egyptian control in the Levant, they were likely settled in strategic coastal strongholds where they served imperial interests.
The situation changed dramatically when Egyptian authority weakened and eventually withdrew from Canaan toward the end of the twelfth century BCE. Unlike the Shardanu, who remained largely integrated into Egyptian structures, the Philistines achieved a substantial degree of independence. Without Egyptian armies to direct or contain them, they developed into autonomous regional powers that frequently clashed with emerging Israelite groups.
This reconstruction corresponds closely with the biblical narrative, which portrays the twelfth and eleventh centuries BCE as an era marked by repeated confrontations between Philistine rulers and early Israelite leaders. Significantly, Egyptian involvement is largely absent from these stories, reflecting Egypt’s diminished influence in the region.
The broader lesson is that mercenaries and mobile warrior communities played a far greater role in ancient history than traditional narratives often acknowledge. Historical reconstructions have long been dominated by the perspectives of great empires such as Egypt, Hatti, and Assyria because these states produced most of the surviving written records.
As a result, less visible groups—including foreign fighters, military specialists, and mobile communities—have often been overlooked. Yet the evidence provided by the Shardanu demonstrates that such people were not marginal figures. They were active participants in the political, economic, and cultural transformations that reshaped the Mediterranean world at the end of the Bronze Age.
DAVID THE MERCENARY
The biblical figure of David provides a striking illustration of how common mercenary service could be in the ancient Near East.
Before becoming king of Israel, David spent a significant period as a military leader in the service of the Philistines while fleeing from Saul. According to the biblical account, he entered the service of the ruler of Gath and was granted the town of Ziklag in return for his loyalty and military support.
For approximately sixteen months, David and a force of six hundred loyal followers operated under this arrangement. During this time, they supported themselves through military raids against settlements located along the route between Egypt and Shur. The biblical narrative describes these operations as exceptionally ruthless, emphasizing that no survivors were left behind.
David proved so valuable to his Philistine patron that he was eventually appointed as the ruler’s personal bodyguard. The Hebrew expression used in the text literally means “keeper of my head,” a title with obvious significance in an age when the decapitation of defeated rulers and military leaders was a common feature of warfare.
Circumstances ultimately prevented David from fighting alongside the Philistines in their decisive campaign against Saul. Before the battle took place, his services were dismissed and he returned to Ziklag. Shortly thereafter Saul and his son Jonathan were killed.
Even after ascending the throne, David remained closely associated with professional warriors and foreign military specialists. His royal guard included elite fighters renowned for their courage and battlefield achievements. While many came from Judah, others originated from foreign regions including Ammon, Phoenicia, and Hatti.
David’s bodyguard also included units known as the Cherethites and Pelethites. Their names may reflect specialized military functions. The root of the term Cherethite appears to be related to the idea of “cutting down,” suggesting offensive warriors or swordsmen. Pelethite may derive from a term associated with rescue or protection.
If this interpretation is correct, David’s personal guard consisted of highly trained specialists who functioned as both elite combat troops and royal protectors.
The biblical portrait of David therefore reflects the same military world visible throughout the Late Bronze Age and early Iron Age Mediterranean—a world in which foreign fighters, professional soldiers, and mercenary service were not exceptions but essential elements of political power and military organization.
The stories of the Shardanu, the Philistines, and David reveal a Mediterranean world that was far more interconnected than is often imagined. Warriors, merchants, technologies, and cultural traditions crossed vast distances, linking societies from Sardinia to Egypt and from Cyprus to the Levant. In this dynamic environment, mercenaries were not merely hired swords. They were among the agents who helped shape the political, economic, and cultural landscape of the ancient world.
End Part II
This Boundless – Knowledge Without Borders version has been professionally summarized, translated, and edited for clarity and accessibility while preserving the original facts, arguments, and conclusions.
